Butter
This is defined in the Food and Drugs Act 1984 as ‘the substance made exclusively from milk with other preservatives, and with or without the addition of colouring matter’. Butter is produced by agitating ripened cream to separate the globules of milk-fat and butter; the method is known as ‘churning’. The globules of fat are formed into granules then worked into a spongy mixture. This is then drained; the liquid is removed until a homogeneous mass, butter, is formed. Colour can then be added to improve the appearance, also salt, for flavour and keeping qualities.
By law butter must contain at least 80% milk fat, not more
than 2% solids other than oils, and not more than 16% water. Butter must be
kept under favourable conditions, as it tends to become rancid due to the
decomposition of the glycerides.
"Butter is a dairy product made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk. It is generally used as a spread and a condiment, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, and pan frying. Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water.
Most frequently made from cows' milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat.
Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, an oil-in-water emulsion; the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, and melts to a thin liquid consistency at 32–35 °C (90–95 °F). The density of butter is 911 g/L (56.9 lb/ft3).[1]
It generally has a pale yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the animals' feed and is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process, most commonly annatto or carotene.
The word butter derives (via Germanic languages) from the Latin butyrum,[2] which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον (bouturon).[3][4] This may have been a construction meaning "cow-cheese", from βοῦς (bous), "ox, cow"[5] + τυρός (turos), "cheese",[6]but perhaps this is a false etymology of a Scythian word.[7] Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the second stem, turos ("cheese"), is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro, written in Linear B syllabic script.[8] The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a compound found inrancid butter and dairy products such as Parmesan cheese.
In general use, the term "butter" refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed & nut products such as peanut butter and almond butter. It is often applied to spread fruit productssuch as apple butter. Fats such as cocoa butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as "butters". In addition to the act of applying butter being called "to butter", non-dairy items that have a dairy butter consistency may use "butter' to call that consistency to mind, including food items such as maple butter and witch's butter and nonfood items such as baby bottom butter,hyena butter, and rock butter.
History
The earliest butter would have been from sheep or goat's milk; cattle are not thought to have been domesticated for another thousand years.[15]An ancient method of butter making, still used today in parts of Africa and the Near East, involves a goat skin half filled with milk, and inflated with air before being sealed. The skin is then hung with ropes on a tripod of sticks, and rocked until the movement leads to the formation of butter.
In the Mediterranean climate, unclarified butter spoils quickly— unlike cheese, it is not a practical method of preserving the nutrients of milk. The ancient Greeks and Romans seemed to have considered butter a food fit more for the northern barbarians. A play by the Greek comic poetAnaxandrides refers to Thracians as boutyrophagoi, "butter-eaters".[16] In Natural History, Pliny the Elder calls butter "the most delicate of food among barbarous nations", and goes on to describe its medicinal properties.[17] Later, the physician Galen also described butter as a medicinal agent only.[18]
Historian and linguist Andrew Dalby says most references to butter in ancient Near Eastern texts should more correctly be translated as ghee. Ghee is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as a typical trade article around the first century CE Arabian Sea, and Roman geographer Strabo describes it as a commodity of Arabia and Sudan.[16] In India, ghee has been a symbol of purity and an offering to the gods—especially Agni, the Hindu god of fire—for more than 3000 years; references to ghee's sacred nature appear numerous times in the Rigveda, circa 1500–1200 BCE. The tale of the child Krishna stealing butter remains a popular children's story in India today. Since India's prehistory, ghee has been both a staple food and used for ceremonial purposes, such as fueling holy lamps and funeral pyres.
Middle Ages
The cooler climates of northern Europe allowed butter to be stored for a longer period before it spoiled. Scandinavia has the oldest tradition in Europe of butter export trade, dating at least to the 12th century.[19] After the fall of Rome and through much of the Middle Ages, butter was a common food across most of Europe, but one with a low reputation, and was consumed principally by peasants. Butter slowly became more accepted by the upper class, notably when the early 16th century Roman Catholic Church allowed its consumption during Lent. Bread and butter became common fare among the middle class, and the English, in particular, gained a reputation for their liberal use of melted butter as a sauce with meat and vegetables.[20]
In antiquity, butter was used for fuel in lamps as a substitute for oil. The Butter Tower of Rouen Cathedral was erected in the early 16th century when Archbishop Georges d'Amboise authorized the burning of butter instead of oil, which was scarce at the time, during Lent.[21]
Across northern Europe, butter was sometimes treated in a manner unheard-of today: it was packed into barrels (firkins) and buried in peat bogs, perhaps for years. Such "bog butter" would develop a strong flavor as it aged, but remain edible, in large part because of the unique cool, airless,antiseptic and acidic environment of a peat bog. Firkins of such buried butter are a common archaeological find in Ireland; the Irish National Museum has some containing "a grayish cheese-like substance, partially hardened, not much like butter, and quite free from putrefaction." The practice was most common in Ireland in the 11th–14th centuries; it ended entirely before the 19th century.[19]
Industrialization
Like Ireland, France became well known for its butter, particularly in Normandy and Brittany. By the 1860s, butter had become so in demand in France that Emperor Napoleon III offered prize money for an inexpensive substitute to supplement France's inadequate butter supplies. A French chemist claimed the prize with the invention of margarine in 1869. The first margarine was beef tallow flavored with milk and worked like butter; vegetable margarine followed after the development of hydrogenated oils around 1900.
Until the 19th century, the vast majority of butter was made by hand, on farms. The first butter factories appeared in the United States in the early 1860s, after the successful introduction of cheese factories a decade earlier. In the late 1870s, the centrifugal cream separator was introduced, marketed most successfully by Swedish engineer Carl Gustaf Patrik de Laval.[22] This dramatically sped up the butter-making process by eliminating the slow step of letting cream naturally rise to the top of milk. Initially, whole milk was shipped to the butter factories, and the cream separation took place there. Soon, though, cream-separation technology became small and inexpensive enough to introduce an additional efficiency: the separation was accomplished on the farm, and the cream alone shipped to the factory. By 1900, more than half the butter produced in the United States was factory made; Europe followed suit shortly after.
In 1920, Otto Hunziker authored The Butter Industry, Prepared for Factory, School and Laboratory,[23] a well-known text in the industry that enjoyed at least three editions (1920, 1927, 1940). As part of the efforts of the American Dairy Science Association, Professor Hunziker and others published articles regarding: causes of tallowiness[24] (an odor defect, distinct from rancidity, a taste defect); mottles[25] (an aesthetic issue related to uneven color); introduced salts;[26] the impact of creamery metals[27] and liquids;[28] and acidity measurement.[29] These and other ADSA publications helped standardize practices internationally.
Butter also served as a source of extra income for farm families. Wood presses featuring intricate decoration were used to press the butter into pucks or small bricks to be sold at a nearby market or general store with the decoration identifying the farm which produced the butter. This continued until production was mechanized and butter was produced in less decorative stick form.[30] Today butter presses continue to be used for decorative purposes.
Per capita butter consumption declined in most western nations during the 20th century, in large part because of the rising popularity ofmargarine, which is less expensive and, until recent years, was perceived as being healthier. In the United States, margarine consumption overtook butter during the 1950s,[31] and it is still the case today that more margarine than butter is eaten in the U.S. and the EU."-Wikipedia
Margarine
This is a product specially designed to substitute butter. It consists of animal fats, vegetable fats, and oil, with the additional of colouring matter. It is absolutely essential in the production of margarine that all ingredients were puree and fresh. Margarine was invented by a French chemist, Mege-Mouries and the Greek word for pearl (margaron) that margarine got its name.
Oil such as ground nut, fish oils, coconut, palm kernel,
oleo, and oil are used for manufacturing margarine. Vitamin A and D, vegetable
colouring and brine are added. A quantity of fat-free milk is pasteurised and
added to the fats and oils, the mixture is then chilled and emulsified until it
has reached the correct consistency and texture. In some products a small
amount of butter is blended in- no more than 10%. Lecithin or some other
emulsifying agent and colour are added.
"Margarine (
/ˈmɑrdʒərɨn/, /ˈmɑrɡərɨn/, /ˈmɑrdʒrɨn/, or /ˈmɑrdʒəriːn/) is a generic term for vegetable fat spreads, typically composed of vegetable oils. While butter is derived from animal fats (typically milk fats), margarine is derived from plant oils and fats (oils) andskimmed milk.
/ˈmɑrdʒərɨn/, /ˈmɑrɡərɨn/, /ˈmɑrdʒrɨn/, or /ˈmɑrdʒəriːn/) is a generic term for vegetable fat spreads, typically composed of vegetable oils. While butter is derived from animal fats (typically milk fats), margarine is derived from plant oils and fats (oils) andskimmed milk.
In some locales it is colloquially referred to as oleo, short for oleomargarine.
Margarine can be used both for spreading or for baking and cooking. It is also commonly used as an ingredient in other food products, such as pastries and cookies, for its wide range of functionalities.
Etymology
The word "margarine" comes from the Ancient Greek μαργαρίτης (“pearl”).
[edit]History
Margarine originated with the discovery by Michel Eugène Chevreul in 1813 of margaric acid (itself named after the pearly deposits of the fatty acid from Greek μαργαρίτης or μάργαρον (margaritēs / márgaron), meaning pearl-oyster or pearl,[1] or μαργαρίς (margarís), meaning palm-tree, hence the relevance to palmitic acid).[2] Scientists at the time regarded margaric acid, like oleic acid and stearic acid, as one of the three fatty acids which, in combination, formed most animal fats. In 1853, the German structural chemist,Wilhelm Heinrich Heintz, analyzed margaric acid as simply a combination of stearic acid and of the previously unknown palmitic acid.[3]
Emperor Louis Napoleon III of France offered a prize to anyone who could make a satisfactory substitute for butter, suitable for use by the armed forces and the lower classes.[4]French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès invented a substance he called oleomargarine, the name of which became shortened to the trade name "margarine". Mège-Mouriès patented the concept in 1869 and expanded his initial manufacturing operation from France but had little commercial success. In 1871, he sold the patent to the Dutch companyJurgens, now part of Unilever.[5] In the same year the German pharmacist Benedict Klein from Cologne founded the first margarine factory "Benedict Klein Margarinewerke", producing the brands Overstolz and Botteram.[6]
Since margarine intrinsically appears white or almost white, by forbidding the addition of artificial colouring agents, legislators found that they could protect the dairy industries by discouraging the consumption of margarine based on visual appeal. Bans on adding colour became commonplace in the U.S., Australasia and Canada and, in some cases, those bans endured for almost 100 years. It did not become legal to sell coloured margarine in Australia, for example, until the 1960s. The rivalry between the dairy industry and the oleomargarine industry persists even today.[7]
[edit]Canada
In Canada, margarine was banned from 1886 until 1948 though this ban was temporarily lifted from 1917 until 1923 due to dairy shortages.[8] Nevertheless, bootleg margarine was produced in the neighbouring British colony of Newfoundland from whale, seal and fish oil by the Newfoundland Butter Company (which, in fact, produced only margarine) and was smuggled to Canada where it was widely sold for half the price of butter. The Supreme Court of Canada lifted the margarine ban in 1948 in the Margarine Reference.
In 1950, as a result of a court ruling giving provinces the right to regulate the product, rules were implemented in much of Canada regarding margarine's colour, requiring it to be bright yellow or orange in some provinces or colourless in others. By the 1980s, most provinces had lifted the restriction, however, in Ontario it was not legal to sell butter-coloured margarine until 1995.[8] Quebec, the last Canadian province to regulate margarine colouring, repealed its law requiring margarine to be colorless in July 2008.[9]
[edit]United States
As early as 1877, the first United States (U.S.) states had passed laws to restrict the sale and labeling of margarine. By the mid-1880s, the U.S. federal government had introduced a tax of two cents per pound, and manufacturers needed an expensive license to make or sell the product. Individual states began to require the clear labeling of margarine. The color bans, drafted by the butter lobby, began in the dairy states of New York and New Jersey. In several states, legislatures enacted laws to require margarine manufacturers to add pink colorings to make the product look unpalatable,[10] but the Supreme Court struck down New Hampshire's law and overruled these measures in Collins v. New Hampshire, 171 U.S. 30 (1898). Some localities required restaurants using margarine to post signs reading "Artificial Butter Used Here".
By the start of the 20th century, eight out of ten Americans could not buy yellow margarine, and those that could had to pay a hefty tax on it. Bootleg colored margarine became common, and manufacturers began to supply food-coloring capsules so that the consumer could knead the yellow color into margarine before serving it. Nevertheless, the regulations and taxes had a significant effect: the 1902 restrictions on margarine color, for example, cut annual U.S. consumption from 120,000,000 to 48,000,000 pounds (54,000 to 22,000 t).
With the coming of World War I, margarine consumption increased enormously, even in countries away from the front like the U.S. In the countries closest to the fighting, dairy products became almost unobtainable and were strictly rationed. The United Kingdom, for example, depended on imported butter from Australia and New Zealand, and the risk ofsubmarine attack meant little arrived.
The long-running rent-seeking battle between the margarine and dairy lobbies continued: In the U.S., the Great Depression brought a renewed wave of pro-dairy legislation; theSecond World War, a swing back to margarine. Post-war, the margarine lobby gained power and, little by little, the main margarine restrictions were lifted, the most recent states to do so being Minnesota in 1963 and Wisconsin in 1967.[11] Lois Dowdle Cobb (1889–1987) of Atlanta, Georgia, wife of the agricultural publisher Cully Cobb, led the move in the United States to lift the restrictions on margarine.[12] Some unenforced laws remain on the books.[13][14]
[edit]Development of spreads
Margarine and butter both consist of a water-in-fat emulsion, with tiny droplets of water (minimum 16% of total emulsion content by weight) measuring 10-80 micrometers in diameter, dispersed uniformly throughout a fat phase which is in a stable crystalline form.[15]
The definition for margarine originally came from the legal definition for butter — both contained a minimum of 16% water and a minimum fat content of 80%. This was adopted by all major producers and became the industry standard.[15]
The principal raw material in the original formulation of margarine was beef fat. Shortages in supply combined with advances in the hydrogenation of plant materials soon led to the addition of vegetable oils, and between 1900 and 1920 oleomargarine was produced from a combination of animal fats and hardened and unhardened vegetable oils.[16] The depression of the 1930s, followed by the rationing of World War II, led to a reduction in supply of animal fat; and, by 1945, "original" margarine almost completely disappeared from the market.[16] In the U.S., problems with supply, coupled with changes in legislation, caused manufacturers to switch almost completely to vegetable oils and fats (oleomargarine) by 1950 and the industry was ready for an era of product development.[16]
During WWII rationing, only two types of margarine were available in the UK, a premium brand and a cheaper budget brand. With the end of rationing in 1955 the market was opened to the forces of supply and demand and brand marketing became prevalent.[16] The competition between the major producers was given further impetus with the beginning of commercial television advertising in 1955; and, throughout the 1950s and 1960s, competing companies vied with each other to produce the margarine that tasted most like butter.[16]
In the mid-1960s, the introduction of two lower-fat blends of butter oil and vegetable oils in Scandinavia, called Lätt & Lagom and Bregott, clouded the issue of what should be called "margarine" and began the debate that led to the introduction of the term "spread".[15] In 1978, an 80% fat product called Krona, made by churning a blend of dairy cream and vegetable oils, was introduced in Europe; and, in 1982, a blend of cream and vegetable oils called Clover was introduced in the UK by the Milk Marketing Board.[15] The vegetable oil and cream spread I Can't Believe It's Not Butter! was introduced in the United States in 1986 and in the United Kingdom and Canada in 1991.[17][18]
In recent decades, margarine spreads have gone through many developments in efforts to improve their healthfulness. Most brands have phased out the use of hydrogenated oils, and are now also trans fat free. As well, many brands have launched refrigerator-stable margarine spreads that contain only 1/3 of the fat and calorie content of traditional spreads. Other varieties of spreads include those with added Omega-3 fatty acids for heart and brain health, those with low or no salt, those with added plant sterols for reducing blood cholesterol, and some made from olive oil or certified vegan oils.[19][20]
[edit]Manufacture
The basic method of making margarine today consists, as it did in Mège-Mouriés day, of emulsifying a blend of purified vegetable oils with skimmed milk, chilling the mixture to solidify it and working it to improve the texture.[1] Vegetable and animal fats are similar compounds with different melting points. Those fats that are liquid at room temperature are generally known as oils. The melting points are determined by the presence of alkenic double bonds on fatty (carboxylic) acids; the higher the number of double bonds, the lower the melting point.
Alternatively, solid fats can be manufactured from oils by converting animal or vegetable oils by passing hydrogen through the oil in the presence of a nickel catalyst, under controlled conditions.[21] The addition of hydrogen to the unsaturated bonds (alkenic double C=C bonds) results in saturated C-C bonds, effectively increasing the melting point of the oil and thus "hardening" it. This is due to the increase in van der Waals' forces between the saturated molecules compared with the unsaturated molecules. However, as there are possible health benefits in limiting the amount of saturated fats in the human diet, the process is controlled so that only enough of the bonds are hydrogenated to give the required texture. Margarines manufactured in this way are said to contain hydrogenated fat.[22] This method is used today for some margarines although the process has been developed and sometimes other metal catalysts are used such as palladium.[1] If hydrogenation is incomplete (partial hardening), the relatively high temperatures used in the hydrogenation process tend to flip some of the carbon-carbon double bonds into the "trans" form. If these particular bonds aren't hydrogenated during the process, they will still be present in the final margarine in molecules of trans fats,[22] the consumption of which has been shown to be a risk factor for cardiovascular disease.[23] For this reason, partially hardened fats are used less and less in the margarine industry. Some tropical oils, such as palm oil and coconut oil, are naturally semi solid and do not require hydrogenation.[24][25]
Modern margarines can be made from any of a wide variety of animal or vegetable fats, mixed with skim milk, salt, and emulsifiers[26]. Margarines and vegetable fat spreads found in the market can range from 10 to 90% fat. Depending on its final fat content and its purpose (spreading, cooking or baking), the level of water and the vegetable oils used will slightly vary. The oil is pressed from seeds and refined. It is then blended with solid fat. If no solid fats are added to the vegetable oils, the latter undergo a full or partial hydrogenation process to solidify them. The resulting blend is mixed with water, citric acid, carotenoids, vitamins and milk powder. Emulsifiers such as lecithin help disperse the water phase evenly throughout the oil, and salt and preservatives are also commonly added. This oil and water emulsion is then heated, blended, and cooled. The softer tub margarines are made with less hydrogenated, more liquid, oils than block margarines.[27]
Three main types of margarine are common:
- Soft vegetable fat spreads, high in mono- or polyunsaturated fats, which are made from safflower, sunflower, soybean, cottonseed, rapeseed, or olive oil.
- Margarines in bottle to cook or top dishes
- Hard, generally uncolored margarine for cooking or baking. (Shortening)
[edit]Blending with butter
Many popular table spreads sold today are blends of margarine and butter or other milk products. Blending, which is used to improve the taste of margarine, was long illegal in countries such as the United States and Australia. Under European Union directives, a margarine product cannot be called "butter", even if most of it consists of natural butter. In some European countries butter-based table spreads and margarine products are marketed as "butter mixtures".
Butter mixtures now make up a significant portion of the table spread market. The brand "I Can't Believe It's Not Butter" spawned a variety of similarly named spreads that can now be found on supermarket shelves all over the world, with names like "Utterly Butterly", "You'd Butter Believe it", "Beautifully Butterfully", and "Butterlicious". These butter mixtures avoid the restrictions on labelling, with marketing techniques that imply a strong similarity to real butter. Such marketable names present the product to consumers differently from the required product labels that call margarine "partially hydrogenated vegetable oil".
[edit]Market acceptance
Margarine, particularly polyunsaturated margarine, has become a major part of the Western diet and overtook butter in popularity in the mid-20th century.[27] In the United States, for example, in 1930 the average person ate over 18 pounds (8.2 kg) of butter a year and just over 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of margarine. By the end of the 20th century, an average American ate around 5 lb (2.3 kg) of butter and nearly 8 lb (3.6 kg) of margarine.[28]
Margarine has particular market to those who observe the Jewish dietary laws of Kashrut. Kashrut forbids the mixing of meat and dairy products, and hence there are strictly Koshernon-dairy margarines available. These are often used by the Kosher consumer to adapt recipes that use meat and butter, or in baked goods that will be served with meat meals. The2008 Passover margarine shortage in America caused much consternation within the Kosher-observant community.
Margarine that doesn't contain dairy products can also provide a vegan substitute for butter"-Wikipedia
Lard
Lard can be mainly used by the patissier as a shortening agent in making hot water paste for raised meat and fish pies.
Shortening
Originally an American invention, shortening is adulterated ‘compound lard’. Shortening now consists of hydrogenated animal or vegetable oils and 100% fats.
This emulsified white fat possesses good creaming properties; it is used in small portions with margarine and butter in cake mixes, with the advantage of producing an improved crumb texture in the cake.
Shortening is any fat that is solid at room temperature and used to make crumbly pastry. The reason it is called shortening is that it prevents cross-linkage between gluten molecules. Cross linking gives dough elasticity. In pastries such as cake, which should not be elastic, shortening is used.[1] Although butter is solid at room temperature and is frequently used in making pastry, the term "shortening" seldom refers to butter but is more closely related to margarine.
Originally, shortening was synonymous with lard, and with the invention of margarine by French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès in 1869, margarine also came to be included in the term. Since the invention of hydrogenated vegetable oil in the early 20th century, "shortening" has come almost exclusively to mean hydrogenated vegetable oil. Vegetable shortening shares many properties with lard: both are semi-solid fats with a higher smoke point than butter and margarine. They contain less water and are thus less prone to splattering, making them safer for frying. Lard and shortening have a higher fat content compared to about 80% for butter and margarine. Cake margarines and shortenings tend to contain a few percent of monoglycerides whereas margarines typically have less. Such "high ratio shortenings" blend better with hydrophilic ingredients such as starches and sugar.[2]
Hydrogenation of organic substances was first developed by the French chemist Paul Sabatier in 1897, and in 1901 the German chemist Wilhelm Normann developed the hydrogenation of fats, which he patented in 1902.[3] In 1907, a German chemist, Edwin Cuno Kayser, moved to Cincinnati,Ohio, the home town of US soap manufacturer Procter & Gamble. He had worked for British soap manufacturer Joseph Crosfield and Sons and was well acquainted with Normann's process, as Crosfield and Sons owned the British rights to Normann's patent.[3] Soon after arrival, Kayser made a business deal with Procter & Gamble, and shortly thereafter presented the company with two processes to hydrogenate cottonseed oil, with the intent of creating a raw material for soap.[3] However, since the product looked like lard, Procter & Gamble instead began selling it as a vegetable fat for cooking purposes in June 1911, calling it "Crisco", a modification of the phrase "crystallized cottonseed oil".[3]
While similar to lard, vegetable shortening was much cheaper to produce. Shortening also required no refrigeration, which further lowered its costs and increased its appeal in a time when refrigerators were rare. With these advantages, plus an intensive advertisement campaign by Procter & Gamble, Crisco quickly gained popularity in US households.[3] As food production became increasingly industrialized and manufacturers sought low-cost raw materials, the use of vegetable shortening also became very common in the food industry. In addition, vast American government-financed surpluses of cottonseed oil, corn oil, and soy beans also helped create a market in low-cost vegetable shortening.[4]
Crisco, since 2002 owned by the J.M. Smucker Co., is still the most well-known brand of shortening in the US, nowadays consisting of a blend of partially and fully hydrogenated soybean and palm oils.[5] In Ireland and the UK, Cookeen is a popular brand, while in Australia, Copha is popular, although made primarily from coconut oil"-Wikipedia
Suet
This is the hard fat encasing the heart or embedded in the
loin of the bullock or sheep. It is removed from the tissues, chopped finely,
and used for making steamed puddings and mincemeat.
"Suet /ˈsʲuːɨt/ is raw beef or mutton fat, especially the hard fat found around the loins and kidneys.
Suet has a melting point of between 45° and 50°C (113° and 122°F) and congelation between 37° and 40°C. (98.6° and 104°F). Its high smoke point makes it ideal for deep frying and pastry production"-Wikipedia
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